position: absolute; A diagnosis for insecticide poisoning is typically made based on history and clinical findings. . Breathing may become difficult, and muscles twitch and become weak. These chemicals were originally isolated from chrysanthemum flowers and are generally not harmful. Prepare for the unexpected by getting a quote from top pet insurance providers. If you suspect a pesticide poisoning, get immediate help from a local hospital, physician, or the . Signs and Symptoms of Pesticide . This site complies with the HONcode standard for trustworthy health information: verify here. A cat might drool if she nibbles on a toxic or irritating plant or ingests another poisonous substance. The faster medical help is given, the better the chance for recovery. Nicotine Poisoning. Pesticides. lungs: increases in bronchial mucous secretions, coughing, eyes: blurred vision, smaller sized pupil, and increased tearing, heart: slowed heart rate, block of the electrical conduction responsible for heartbeat, and lowered blood pressure, urinary system: urinary frequency and lack of control. Please confirm that you are not located inside the Russian Federation. A specific drug called yohimbine may be given intravenously to reverse the signs of toxicity. CHLORINATED GROUP 4. If you are not sure that your dog has been in contact with an insecticide, and if clinical signs do not ease following treatment, insecticide poisoning may not be the cause of your dogs symptoms. Organophosphates include malathion, parathion, fenthion, dursban, diazinon, chlorpyrifos, and sarin. Doctors monitor people for respiratory failure and give atropine and other treatments to maintain their breathing and heart function. Learn more about the Merck Manuals and our commitment to Global Medical Knowledge. The chemicals can also be detected by specific urine testing. Treatment of insecticide poisoning depends on whether the chemical was applied or ingested. Permethrin. In addition, insecticides that are absorbed into the skin can also cause . border-bottom: 1px solid rgba(240, 179, 87, 0.5); A special type of insecticide called paraquat is very lethal and responsible for approximately 1,000 deaths per year just in Japan. Insecticide Poisoning. is also a founding member of Hi-Ethics. Decontaminate exposed clothing and wash with soap and water immediately. Symptoms last hours to days after exposure to carbamates, but weakness can last for weeks after exposure to organophosphates. Organophosphate (OP) poisoning continues to be a frequent reason for admission to hospitals and Intensive Care Units in developing countries. It is easier to prevent insecticide poisoning than it is to treat it. Poisonous Ingredient Most household bug sprays contain plant-derived chemicals called pyrethrins. Ceylon Medical Journal 43 (March 1998). Someorganophosphate insecticides commonly used include coumaphos, cyothioate . Thank you for your question. Swallowing these poisons can have severe effects on many parts of the body. Protect yourself and your pet. A medication called pralidoxime is also commonly indicated to reactivate acetylcholinesterase and to reverse typical symptoms due to organophosphate poisoning. Symptoms include increased saliva and tear production, diarrhea, vomiting, small pupils, sweating, muscle tremors, and confusion. Some of the most common causes of cat poisoning include: Poisonous plants such as lilies (day, tiger, japanese show), tulips, and rhododendrons, azaleas; Ingesting or physical contact with common household products like bleach, disinfectants, and other cleaning products, antifreeze, insecticides, pesticides, and . Rarely, shortness of breath or muscle weakness is fatal. Nicotine poisoning refers to the toxic effects of consuming nicotine, a chemical in all tobacco products. There are many other types of toxic substances that can affect cats, including herbicides (substances that kill plants, commonly known as weedkillers), rodenticides (substances that kill rodent pests) and antifreeze. The priority initially is to stabilise any general signs of insecticide poisoning: Specific treatment to remove insecticide from the body is often also carried out, to prevent further absorption, with the details depending on the suspected cause. Life-threatening paralysis and death can occur very quickly. And when one certain pest is eliminated . There should also be a warning on the side of the canister that tells what to do in case of accidental ingestion. DO NOT use it to treat or manage an actual poison exposure. This site complies with the HONcode standard for trustworthy health information: verify here. Emergency Medicine. licking spills, or self-grooming chemicals from their own coats) or via absorption (e.g. Pesticide Poisoning Diagnosis & Treatment in Dogs. Humans are less at risk compared to cats, as they are smaller, with particularly sensitive metabolisms. The symptoms of poisoning depend on the substance and the amount you take in. top: 18px; If you or someone you are with has an exposure, call the local emergency number (such as 911), or the local poison control center can be reached directly by calling the national toll-free Poison Help hotline (1-800-222-1222) from anywhere in the United States. Unfortunately, the widespread use of pesticides, herbicides and fungicides has detrimental effects on the ecosystem. The effects of insecticide poisoning can be severe enough to be fatal, which is why it is vital that you bring your dog to the veterinarian for decontamination as soon as possible. Insecticides belong to a group of chemicals called organophosphates, used to protect against insects. tingling in your hands and feet. Senanayake, N. "Organophosphorus Insecticide Poisoning." As the most cost-effective option for animal poison control care, Pet Poison Helpline's fee of $65 per incident includes follow-up consultations for the duration of the poison case. Victims of . This manual also guides clinicians on how to: Conduct environmental and occupational exposure screening on patients Your email address will not be published. While onset of symptoms is often within minutes to hours, some symptoms can take weeks to appear. Poisoning can occur with a broad range of symptoms affecting the functioning of nerves and initial symptoms similar to the flu, such as vomiting, abdominal pain, dizziness, and headache. Cyphenothrin. If cholinesterase in the blood is less than 25 percent of normal levels, the veterinarian will confirm a positive case. When you get to the vet's, let them know you suspect pesticide poisoning, and be sure to share all . This enzyme functions to degrade a chemical called acetylcholine, which excites nerve cells. Atropine. Poisoning is more common in children due to their smaller size. The chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are general central nervous system stimulants. For minor exposures (for example, breathing the pesticide solvent), the only treatment needed is fresh air. Symptoms of carbamate poisoning also are relieved by atropine but usually not by pralidoxime. Carbamate insecticide poisoning exhibits symptoms similar to organophosphate poisoning but without central nervous system signs. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); allaboutcats.com is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com. Diazinon which may be used in buildings to control infestations of cockroaches, silverfish, ants, and fleas. Sitting In your home. Atropine or glycopyrrolate (Robinul) is the drug of choice for carbamate insecticide poisoning. Pesticides commonly contain organophosphates, which cause a wide range of symptoms related to muscarinic and nicotinic effects. Pesticide Poisoning (Pesticides Toxicity): Read more about Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, Complications, Causes and . 2nd ed. ORGANO PHOSPHORUS GROUP 2. sleeping with a dog wearing an amitraz flea collar) this can cause poisoning. The atropine should be given at high doses, doubling dosage every 5 minutes, in a stepwise fashion, until stabilization. The staff provides treatment advice for poisoning cases of all species, including dogs, cats, birds, small mammals, large animals and exotic species. What are the Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning? Breathing may become difficult, and muscles twitch and become weak. Goldman, Lee, et al. However this needs to be given at an early stage, as if the organophosphate changes have aged, the acetyl choline esterase is permanently attached, and cannot be released. Pesticides are a collective term for chemicals intended to kill unwanted insects, plants, molds, and rodents. The properties that make insecticides deadly to insects can sometimes make them poisonous to humans. Behrman, Richard E., et al, eds. my dog licked up foam wasp spray which had dripped into the ground. Editorial team. if a dog spot-on product is applied to a cat). These include: Various insecticides contain these chemicals. Rakel, Robert E., et al. Some poisonous substances, such as carbon monoxide, interfere with the blood's ability to carry oxygen. As with any recovery, it's imperative to provide your dog with a safe, quiet place to rest once you are home again and make sure he or she has easy access to fresh water. Possible poisonous substances include prescription and over-the-counter drugs, illicit drugs, gases, chemicals, vitamins, food, mushrooms, plants, and . Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. Horse First Aid for Poisoning Horse investigating possibly poisonous red berries on a tree in pasture. Dr Pete Wedderburn qualified as a vet from Edinburgh in 1985 and has run his own 4-veterinarian companion animal practice in County Wicklow, Ireland, since 1991. Young animals and small animals may be more prone to insecticide poisoning than older, larger cats. Treatment for insecticide poisoning depends on whether the insecticide was applied or ingested though the goal in both cases is decontamination and symptom management. A detailed neurological examination will be carried out. Removal of contaminated clothing and washing of skin, Treatments to support breathing and heart function. Organophosphate poisoning is poisoning due to organophosphates (OPs). If inhalation is suspected, the patient should be removed . Required fields are marked *. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2018:chap 152. [17, 18] A study of contamination in the Brazilian population showed adverse effects on hematopoietic tissue and the liver. 2020 Cliverse Media Ltd. We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. They act by affecting the sodium channels in cell membranes, leading to prolonged depolarization (stimulation) of nervous tissue. From 45 quotes ranging from $300 - $3,000. weakness. Premium . very narrowed pupils dizziness disorientation coughing and wheezing sneezing difficulty breathing drooling or excessive phlegm muscle twitching and tremors muscle weakness fatigue severe vomiting. If inhalation is suspected, the patient should be removed from the site of exposure. Poisoning is the harmful effect that occurs when a toxic substance is swallowed, is inhaled, or comes in contact with the skin, eyes, or mucous membranes, such as those of the mouth or nose. Duplication for commercial use must be authorized in writing by ADAM Health Solutions. In: Adams JG, ed. In cases where the insecticide was ingested, it will need to be flushed out of your dogs stomach. Exposure may happen via ingestion (e.g. All rights reserved. If we can administer this solution directly after poisoning we will use 2 to 4 ml of this 3% oxygen solution per kg body weight. Do not make the person throw up unless poison control or a health care provider tells you to. Brought to you by Merck & Co, Inc., Rahway, NJ, USA (known as MSD outside the US and Canada)dedicated to using leading-edge science to save and improve lives around the world. Anticholinesterase Insecticides (organophosphates (OPs) and the carbamates), Malathion, which is used for mosquito and fruitfly control, Chlorpyrifos, which is used for crops, as well as in buildings and other settings. For serious . Before applying any tick or flea medication on your dog, be sure to read the instructions carefully, and use only the amount that is recommended for your dogs size. Disulfoton which has been used for pest control in fields of vegetables and crops. Veterinary reviewed by: Dr. Linda Simon, MVB MRCVS. Treatment of acute organophosphate poisoning consists of non-specific measures of decontamination, cardiorespiratory support, and seizure control where applicable (e.g. vomiting. The clinical signs for insecticide poisoning vary depending on the source and are nonspecific to the condition. The ideal therapy is pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM), which regenerates acetyl choline esterase by allowing its release from the organophosphate. Your email address will not be published. Cardiovascular system symptoms include palpitations and changes in pulse rate, more commonly demonstrating as tachycardias [3]. Organophosphate poisoning is an acute intoxication that occurs during inhalation, transdermal or oral ingestion of certain insecticides (carbophos, chlorophos, thiophos) or chemical warfare agents (sarin, soman, VI-gases). Often, there will be a history of known insecticide exposure (e.g. Contact with the animal poison control centre or the ASPCA poison advice library may be needed to confirm certain details. The symptoms of pesticide poisoning can range from a mild skin irritation to coma or even death. Insecticides have may uses, including pest control around the home, in the garden, and even directly on dogs and cats, in the form of products to control fleas, as well as other types of external parasite control such as tick treatments. Poisoning caused by ingesting insecticides containing permethrin, xylene, and surfactant manifests primarily gastrointestinal tract symptoms and signs. The effects of insecticide can be severe enough to be fatal, it is vital that you bring your dog to a veterinarian for decontamination as soon as possible. The prognosis depends on the severity of the signs, and the level of insecticide exposure. Your veterinarian will check your cat over carefully, ruling out other causes of the signs that are being shown. follows rigorous standards of quality and accountability. Seizures or tremors. Keep all insecticides in a place your dog cannot reach, and store your insecticides according to instructions. Causes and Risk Factors of Insecticide Poisoning. Pesticides, by definition, are substances that are used to kill pests. What Causes Poisoning In Cats? Atropine, given by vein, can relieve most of the symptoms of organophosphate poisoning. A pesticide poisoning occurs when pesticides, chemicals intended to control a pest, affect non-target organisms such as humans, wildlife, plant, or bees.There are three types of pesticide poisoning. Introduction. Pesticides commonly contain organophosphates, which cause a wide range of symptoms related to muscarinic and nicotinic effects. Pesticide Poisoning (Pesticides Toxicity): Read more about Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, Complications, Causes and . Blain, P. G. "Effects of Insecticides." Pete is well known as a media veterinarian with regular national tv, radio and newspaper slots, including a weekly column in the Daily Telegraph since 2007. Severe symptoms rarely develop. Some insecticides are also dangerous to humans. Different classes or families of chemicals cause different types of symptoms. Treatment of carbamate poisoning is similar to that of organophosphate poisoning Organophosphates All pesticide labels include directions for how to properly use the product. Otherwise, give your dog a footbath when you get back home, as residual insecticide may linger on footpads and fur. National Toxicology Program. Services. Pralidoxime, given by vein, can speed up recovery of nerve function, eliminating the cause of the symptoms. Others, such as bleach, burn and irritate the digestive system. Symptoms of poisoning are similar to those for poisoning with dichlorvos, carbososomes, and other phos. [1,2,3] The traditional approach to clinical features in acute OP poisoning has centered on receptor specific effects on muscarinic, nicotinic and central nervous system (CNS) receptors that result in diverse symptoms and signs. Superbugs and superweeds are springing up. Terms of Use, http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/main_Pages/NTP_ALL_STDY_PG.html, Insomnia - Definition, Description, Causes and symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, Alternative treatments, Prevention, Inhalation Therapies - Definition, Purpose, Precautions, Description, Preparation, Aftercare, Risks, Normal results, Health and Medicine Encyclopedia - Vol 14, description of toxins: names of chemical(s), magnitude of exposure: determination of amount of exposure, progression of symptoms: determining the progression of symptoms can provide information concerning, time of exposure: knowing the time of exposure is vital since symptoms may be delayed, and it may assist to develop a management plan, medical history: underlying diseases and therapeutic mediations may worsen toxic manifestations, gastrointestinal: nausea, vomiting, cramps, excess salivation, and loss of bowel control. Symptoms of pyrethrin poisoning: LUNGS AND AIRWAYS Breathing difficulty NERVOUS SYSTEM Coma (decreased level of consciousness and lack of responsiveness) Seizures SKIN Irritation Redness or swelling Symptoms of organophosphate or carbamate poisoning: HEART AND BLOOD application of a dog flea spot-on product to a cat) where the hazard has been identified. Poisoning may affect different body parts as below: Poisoning can lead to serious consequences if touched without gloves or if you do not wash. .summary-table{ Scabies is also known to cause eczema or acne. Recognize the signs and symptoms of pesticide poisoning for those pesticides you commonly use or to which you may be exposed. Both first aid and medical treatment procedures are listed on the product label. You can also cause vomiting with salt water or a little mustard. . Heat exhaustion, food poisoning, asthma and other illnesses are sometimes confused with pesticide poisoning. Acute poisoning risks are clear, and understanding of chronic health implications from both acute . Blood pressure can decrease. and its Licensors We are talking about a painful condition caused by the ingestion of pesticides into the body. Links to other sites are provided for information only -- they do not constitute endorsements of those other sites. Often, rehabilitation treatment lasts quite a long time, much longer than the basic treatment for poisoning. Common Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, diarrhea, poor appetite, muscle tremors, seizures, drooling, trouble walking, trouble breathing There are two major types of insecticides: Organophosphates and carbamates Pyrethrins Organophosphates and carbamates can cause: Watery eyes or blurry vision Sweating Extra saliva (spit) in your mouth Coughing Throwing up Frequent bowel movements (poop) or urination (pee) Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 2000. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Coma (decreased level of consciousness and lack of responsiveness), Name of the product (ingredients and strength, if known), Bronchoscopy -- camera down the throat to look for burns in the airways and lungs, ECG (electrocardiogram), or heart tracing, Endoscopy -- camera down the throat to look for burns in the esophagus and the stomach, Medicines to counteract the poisonous effects, such as atropine, Medicines to support the blood pressure or heart rate, Tube through the mouth into the stomach to empty the stomach (, Washing of the skin (irrigation), perhaps every few hours for several days, Breathing support, including tube through the mouth into the lungs and connected to a breathing machine (ventilator). It could not have been much. Symptoms may include eye tearing, coughing, heart problems, and breathing difficulties. The chemicals are absorbed through the skin, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract and then widely distributed in tissues. (See also Overview of Poisoning Overview of Poisoning Poisoning is the harmful effect that occurs when a toxic substance is swallowed, is inhaled, or comes in contact with the skin, eyes, or mucous membranes, such as those of the mouth or nose read more .). Pete is known as "Pete the Vet" on his busy Facebook, Instagram and Twitter pages, regularly posting information on topical subjects and real-life cases from his clinic. Medical doctors may be uninformed of the symptoms and treatment of pesticide poisoning because of the few cases which they . The Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings: 6th Edition manual gives healthcare providers a quick reference resource for the best toxicology and treatment information for patients with pesticide exposures. border: 1px solid #F0B357; If the insecticide was applied, simply bathing your dog with dish washing detergent before the product has been absorbed may be enough to decontaminate him or her. Cannon RD, Ruha A-M. Insecticides, herbicides, and rodenticides. The individual who is affected, or someone near, should call 911 for emergency assistance (or the local emergency number) They should also call the poison control center at 1-800-222-1222 (or the local poison control center) and follow instructions. Causes of poisoning in cats are wide-ranging, including the ingestion of human medications. Paraquat poisoning releases oxygen free radicals that destroy lung and kidney tissues. IV fluid therapy may be necessary for dehydrated dogs while anti-seizure medication may be given to address convulsions and a respirator, or oxygen cage used to aid with breathing. If an insecticide might have come into contact with the skin, clothing is removed and the skin is washed. shortness of breath. padding: 15px 0 15px 40px; margin-bottom: 30px; If the eyes were the entry site, they should be flushed with large amounts of water. Rinse the skin for 15 to 20 minutes in a shower or with a hose. Following oral toxicity, vomiting may be induced, gastric lavage may be carried out, activated charcoal may be given, and enemas may be adminstered. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2013:chap 146. Pesticide poisoning occurs accidentally and intentionally across the world since these products are widely used agriculturally and domestically. . Initial treatment is not intended as a replacement for care administered by professional medical personnel; rather, initial treatment details the immediate action to take should an accident occur. Copyright 1997-2022, A.D.A.M., Inc. Young animals and small animals may be more prone to insecticide poisoning than older, larger cats. Organophosphates are used as insecticides, medications, and nerve agents. You can detox from pesticide poisoning using natural remedies which include activated charcoal powder, plenty of fresh water, herbs and exercise. Though insecticides are safe when used correctly, an incorrect usage or accidental consumption can lead to poisoning. Insecticides are chemicals used to kill insects. Let the veterinarian know what symptoms your dog has exhibited, as well as their duration and severity. She was licking her lips so we looked outside and figured out what had happened. View all posts by Dr. Pete Wedderburn, DVM, What To Do If Your Cat Is Hit By A Car: A Step-By-Step Guide, Jaundice (Icterus) In Cats: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment, Food Allergies In Cats: Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment, Feline Immunodeficiency Virus (FIV): Symptoms, Causes, Diagnosis & Treatment. The information provided herein should not be used during any medical emergency or for the diagnosis or treatment of any medical condition. 1. Allethrin. Pyrethrins can cause sneezing, eye tearing, coughing, and occasional difficulty breathing. It would be best to call a Pet Poison Control Hotline, and give them the name of the product so that they can see if a small amount might be a problem. Use of this site is subject to our terms of use and privacy policy. Sometimes toxic products are deliberately applied to cats by owners who do not realise the risk of poisoning, but accidental exposure to insecticides is more common. Toxic levels of carbamate insecticides like methomyl and carbofuran can cause seizures and respiratory arrest in your dog. CARBAMATES 3. Signs of poisoning include anorexia, dullness, weakness, incoordination, vomiting, diarrhea, slow heart rate, low body temperature, and potentially death. 's editorial policy editorial process and privacy policy. Diagnosed in Cats: Sometimes Insecticides are commonly used to keep pests away from plants, as well as to repel fleas and ticks from pets. Here are the general symptoms that might indicate pesticide poisoning: Mild Poisoning eye irritation headache fatigue irritation of the nose, throat skin irritation dizziness nausea loss of appetite sweating moodiness restlessness weakness nervousness soreness in joints thirst Moderate Poisoning Symptoms of malathion poisoning can include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, generalized muscle weakness and twitching, slurred speech, pinpoint pupils, excessive secretions, and shortness of breath.
. Most household bug sprays contain plant-derived chemicals called pyrethrins. If the chemical is on the skin or in the eyes, flush with lots of water for at least 15 minutes. American Association of Poison Control Centers: Represents the US-based poison centers that provide 24/7 free, confidential services through the Poison Help Line (1-800-222-1222). . AHA News: Chest Pain, Shortness of Breath Linked to Long-Term Risk of Heart Trouble, Bad Sleep Might Raise Your Odds for Glaucoma, CVS, Walgreens Announce $10 Billion Opioid Settlements, Depression Treatment Starts Changing the Brain Within 6 Weeks, American Association of Poison Control Centers. However, atropine should never be administered unless warning signs of intoxication appear. Organophosphates can be absorbed through the skin, lungs, or the gastrointestinal tract. Though these can usually be applied topically without harming your dog, they may still be dangerous if an adverse reaction occurs or if your dog ingests the insecticide. It reverses many symptoms, but is only partially effective for such central nervous symptom effects as coma and convulsions. URAC's accreditation program is an independent audit to verify that A.D.A.M. Some of the most commonly used insecticides belong to the following groups of compounds 1. diazepam). Pet Insurance covers the cost of many common pet health conditions. padding: 0 20px; They will give you further instructions. Potential symptoms include: Excessive drooling Gagging Nausea Vomiting Diarrhea Lack of appetite Agitation Tremors Convulsions Difficulty breathing Increased heart rate Causes of Insecticide Poisoning in Dogs Quick Overview: Insecticide Poisoning In Cats Other Names: Organophosphate and Carbamate Toxicity Common Symptoms: Fever, vomiting, diarrhea, poor appetite, muscle tremors, seizures, drooling, trouble walking, trouble breathing Diagnosis: Known history of ingestion or contact with insecticide coupled with symptoms, blood cholinesterase levels Although the symptoms are the same for carbamate and organophosphate poisoning, it is harder to recover after organophosphate poisoning. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 2001. This statement presents the position of the American Academy of Pediatrics on pesticides. However, they can cause life-threatening breathing problems if they are breathed in. Dogs who have been exposed to a small amount of pesticide may have a mild reaction that includes: Skin rashes/irritation; Stomach upset; Eye irritation; . Horses often ingest poisons in the form of animal baits, insecticides, toxic plants or forage, improperly stored grain and hay, drugs and medications given in an overdose or by an improper route, household or barn and stable cleaning compounds, paint, and . This national hotline will let you talk to experts in poisoning. You should call if you have any questions about poisoning or poison prevention. Pyrethrins and pyrethroids, which are other commonly used insecticides, are derived from flowers and usually are not very poisonous to humans (they are poisonous to cats). If anyone in your home displays symptoms, seek advice and treatment from health . [4,5] This . 16th ed. She is eating her food.. We want to be safe. Acetylcholine A chemical called a neurotransmitter that functions to excite nerve cells. Training 1-on-1 sessions. .summary-table .table-item:last-child{ Alternatively, atipamezole (an antidote to sedation thats in common use in most veterinary clinics) may be administered. Material Safety Data Sheets. She went outside and vomited. His latest book: Pet Subjects, was published by Aurum Press in 2017. Organophosphates act to inhibit an enzyme in humans called acetyl cholinesterase. organophosphates and carbamates) bind to and inhibit cholinesterase, which is an enzyme present in synapses (the connection points between nerves), They take out acetylcholinesterase, leading to an accumulation of acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter) at the junction between the nerve junction, which in turn leads to over-stimulation of the target that is being stimulated by the nerve (e.g.
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