His endeavour, for instance, to put a stop to the slave raiding which devastated the Sudan was wholly ineffectual. Note: many countries have had multiple dynasties over the course of recorded history. [85][94] Afterward, the Umayyad commander al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf besieged Mecca and killed Ibn al-Zubayr in 692, marking the end of the Second Fitna and the reunification of the Caliphate under Abd al-Malik's rule. [2] In contrast, Hatshepsut's glorious reign was a completely different case: she demonstrated that women were as capable as men of ruling the two lands since she successfully presided over a prosperous Egypt for more than two decades. [162][163], The Byzantine and Sassanid Empires relied on money economies before the Muslim conquest, and that system remained in effect during the Umayyad period. The empty string is the special case where the sequence has length zero, so there are no symbols in the string. In turn, the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets, which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States. Discontent among the Khorasani Arabs rose sharply after the losses suffered in the Battle of the Defile in 731. "The Ptolemies: Dynastic Egypt From Alexander to Cleopatra." The first 30 divisions come from the 3rd century BC Egyptian priest Manetho, whose Aegyptaiaca, was Her father's reign began in either 1526 or 1506 BC according to the high and low estimates of her reign, respectively. He encountered serious obstacles in Arabia, predominantly stemming from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of warfare adopted by his adversaries, but on the whole his forces proved superior to those of the enemy. Ramesses II was succeeded by his son Merneptah and then by Merenptah's son Seti II. [42] Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. Further Shia Imams, Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin would be killed at the hands of ruling Umayyad caliphs. In 1865, he established the Egyptian post office; he reorganized the military schools of his grandfather, and gave some support to the cause of education. The main city of prehistoric Upper Egypt was Nekhen. Her buildings were the first grand ones planned for that location. The dilemma takes its name from confusion over the chronology of the rule of Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose I, II, and III. Relays of horses were used for the conveyance of dispatches between the caliph and his agents and officials posted in the provinces. The Monarchy of Hawaii is the direct successor to the monarchies of, By the grace of God, the Monarch of the Hawaiian Islands, By the grace of God, King of the Hawaiian Islands, By the grace of God, Queen of the Hawaiian Islands, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Hawaiian_monarchs&oldid=1118386097, Short description is different from Wikidata, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Articles containing Hawaiian-language text, Articles containing explicitly cited English-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 26 October 2022, at 18:51. Three great kingdoms arose from the ashes of Alexander's empire: Macedonia on the Greek mainland, the Seleucid empire in Syria and Mesopotamia, and the Ptolemies, including Egypt and Cyrenaica. [citation needed], Hatshepsut assumed all the regalia and symbols of the Pharaonic office in official representations: the Khat head cloth, topped with the uraeus, the traditional false beard, and shendyt kilt. The splintering of the land most likely happened shortly after the reigns of the powerful Thirteenth Dynasty Pharaohs Neferhotep I and Sobekhotep IV c. 1720 BC.[20][21]. The seat of power of these kings was the city of Avaris in the Nile delta, from where they ruled over Lower and Middle Egypt up to Cusae. [13] This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb,[14][15] during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. [77] The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka. [113], In 691/92, Abd al-Malik completed the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. Some names were re-used, as in the case of Yazid II and Yazid III, which were not accounted for in this interpretation. [125], Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Hirst, K. Kris. [92][134] By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.[136]. On one hand, Hatshepsut was an innovator. The Ptolemies attempted to expand their holdings in two areas: the Greek cultural centers in the eastern Mediterranean and Syria-Palestine. The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani (Persian: , romanized: Grkniyn, lit. Some generals wanted all of Alexander's territory to stay unified, but that proved untenable. Abdullah I, their chief, was made prisoner and with his treasurer and secretary was sent to Istanbul (in some references he was sent to Cairo), where, in spite of Ibrahim's promise of safety and of Muhammad Ali's intercession in their favor,[citation needed] they were put to death. Khufu, his son Khafre (Greek Chephren), and his grandson Menkaure (Greek Mycerinus) all achieved lasting fame in the construction of the Giza pyramid complex. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC, where he led Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II and was caught in history's first recorded military ambush. [183] It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland. [133][pageneeded]. "[21], Hatshepsut re-established the trade networks that had been disrupted during the Hyksos occupation of Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, thereby building the wealth of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Caesar, getting a message that his allies were close, left a small garrison in Alexandria and hurried to meet them. [76] According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up food prices, then nominal wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology. Kamehameha I established the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1795 after conquering most of the Hawaiian Islands. [135] The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history prior to the Mughal era. [42] Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. [91] India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century. Hirst, K. Kris. Four successive Saite kings continued guiding Egypt successfully and peacefully from 610526 BC, keeping the Babylonians in certain measures away with the help of Greek mercenaries. The first 30 divisions come from the 3rd century BC Egyptian priest Manetho, whose Aegyptaiaca, was The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony. [16], Dating the beginning of her reign is more difficult, however. [86], The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. At this point, the Herakleopolitans were defeated and the Theban dynasty consolidated their rule over Egypt. Chronology-wise, the Hatshepsut problem was largely cleared up in the late 20th century, as more information about her and her reign was uncovered. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250tons annually, compared with 23,061tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name, Ptolemy. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region. She managed to rule as regent for a son who was not her own, defying the system which had previously only allowed direct mothers to rule on behalf of their biological sons. Funeral practices for the elite resulted in the construction of mastabas, which later became models for subsequent Old Kingdom constructions such as the step pyramid, thought to have originated during the Third Dynasty of Egypt. He reigned for 67 years from the age of 18 and carried on his father Seti I's work and created many more splendid temples, such as that of Abu Simbel temples on the Nubian border. He was also compelled to fight invading Libyan tribesmen in two major campaigns in Egypt's Western Delta in his Year 6 and Year 11 respectively.[27]. [42] Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king,[60] with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society,[42] while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples,[63] employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims. Professing to be quite satisfied with this arrangement, he announced that Egypt was no longer in Africa but a part of Europe. If they converted to Islam they would cease paying jizya and would instead pay zakat. c. 16501550 BC). c. 16501550 BC). One of the best-known 18th Dynasty pharaohs is Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of the god Aten. [118] From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan. [175] The Kalb tribe had remained largely neutral when the Muslims first went into Syria. The history of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty (18051953) spanned the later period of Ottoman Egypt, the Khedivate of Egypt under British occupation, and the nominally independent Sultanate of Egypt and Kingdom of Egypt, ending with the Revolution of 1952 and the formation of the Republic of Egypt. [176] Muawiyah even restored Edessa's cathedral after it had been toppled by an earthquake. He would have had a motive because his position in the royal lineage was not so strong as to assure his elevation to pharaoh. In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of Pharaoh. Later, the Umayyads were criticized by some Muslims for not reducing the taxes of the people who converted to Islam.[185]. This is a list of kingdoms and royal dynasties, organized by geographic region.. His opponent Tefnakhte ultimately submitted to him, but he was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and founded the short-lived Twenty-Fourth Dynasty at Sais. [14] The Gerzeh culture coincided with a significant drop in rainfall[14] and farming produced the vast majority of food. The Hyksos princes and chieftains ruled in the eastern Delta with their local Egyptian vassals. Kamehameha I established the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1795 after conquering most of the Hawaiian Islands.In 1810, Kaumualii became a vassal of Kamehameha I, who therefore emerged as the sole sovereign of the island chain of Hawaii. The use of "Mughal" and "Moghul" derived from the Arabic and Shortly afterward, Alexander left to conquer new worlds, leaving Egypt in the control of various Egyptian and Greco-Macedonian officers. With short reigns, Hatshepsut would have ascended the throne 14 years after the coronation of Thutmose I, her father. A member of the Ptolemaic dynasty, she was a descendant of its founder Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general and companion of Alexander the Great. In: Gttinger Miszellen, vol. [47][49] In July 660 Mu'awiya was formally recognized as caliph in Jerusalem by his Syrian tribal allies. Before the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821, he had already expended much time and energy in organizing a fleet and in training, under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and artificers; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. After being conquered by Alexander the Great (332 bce), Palestine became part of the Hellenistic kingdom of Ptolemaic Egypt, the policy of which was to permit the Jews considerable cultural and religious freedom. [61][68] However, in an unprecedented move in Islamic politics, Mu'awiya nominated his own son, Yazid I, as his successor in 676, introducing hereditary rule to caliphal succession and, in practice, turning the office of the caliph into a kingship. As a result, the British abandoned any hope they may have had of reaching Cairo from the north, and shifted their base of operations to Ismailia instead. In 739 a major Berber Revolt broke out in North Africa, which was probably the largest military setback in the reign of Caliph Hisham. [171], Although non-Muslims could not hold the highest public offices in the empire, they held many bureaucratic positions within the government. She built hers in a complex at Deir el-Bahri. Trade with the oases was also likely. The former owners were forced to accept inadequate pensions instead. The international prestige of Egypt declined considerably by this time. Assuming that the mummy is that of Hatshepsut, it is likely that she inadvertently poisoned herself while trying to soothe her itchy, irritated skin. [70], Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation. The negative view of the Umayyads held by Shias is briefly expressed in the Shi'a book "Sulh al-Hasan". Mass conversions also created a growing population of Muslims in the territory of the Caliphate. [83] Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. [8], The Amratian culture is named after the site of el-Amreh, about 120 kilometres (75mi) south of Badari. The Kushite kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and political instability and defeated the combined might of several native-Egyptian rulers such as Peftjauawybast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, and Tefnakht of Sais. The Fatimid rulers of Egypt after him are not recognized as Imams by Mustaali/Taiyabi Ismailis. The danger of a serious rising brought the British and French fleets in May 1882 to Alexandria. [61] After al-Mughira's death in 670, Mu'awiya attached Kufa and its dependencies to the governorship of Basra, making Ziyad the practical viceroy over the eastern half of the Caliphate. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. [69] The act was met with disapproval or opposition by the Iraqis and the Hejaz-based Quraysh, including the Umayyads, but most were bribed or coerced into acceptance. According to one common view, the Umayyads transformed the caliphate from a religious institution (during the Rashidun caliphate) to a dynastic one. In Egyptian history, there was no word for a "queen regnant" as in contemporary history, "king" being the ancient Egyptian title regardless of gender, and by the time of her reign, pharaoh had become the name for the ruler. [43][44] Her death has since been attributed to a benzopyrene carcinogenic skin lotion found in possession of the Pharaoh, which led to her having bone cancer. Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars, which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas. The battle took place between an Egyptian army, headed by Ahmed Urabi, and British forces headed by Sir Archibald Alison. It is also highly likely that it was during this period that all of the pyramid and tomb complexes were looted. Lintel showing names of Ramesses III, Egypt, 20th Dynasty, 11841153 BC. [177] Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. By 1700, the GDP of Mughal India had risen to 24% of the world economy, the largest in the world, larger than both Qing China and Western Europe. [citation needed] As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of the Nizam in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco. Succeeding the Antipatrid dynasty in much of Macedonia, Antigonus ruled mostly over Asia Minor and northern Syria. When Wahabis captured Mecca in 1802, the Ottoman sultan ordered Muhammad Ali of Egypt to start moving against Wahabbis to re-conquer Mecca and return the honour of the [141], Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson, who consider them exaggerations. [139], Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. Along the Nile in the 12th millennium BC, an Upper Paleolithic grain-grinding culture using the earliest type of sickle blades had replaced the culture of hunting, fishing, and hunter-gatherers using stone tools. Muawiya's marriage to Maysun bint Bahdal (Yazid's mother) was politically motivated, as she was the daughter of the chief of the Kalb tribe, which was a large Syriac Orthodox Christian Arab tribe in Syria. [81][79], The empire was divided into suba (provinces), each of which were headed by a provincial governor called a subadar. His dynasty lasted until 1872, and his Kingdom lasted until 1893, when Queen Liliuokalani, of the Kalkaua dynasty, was deposed by the pro He deposed and exiled the Sharif of Mecca and after the death of the Saudi leader Saud he concluded a treaty with Saud's son and successor, Abdullah I in 1815. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. [132] His lieutenant governor of Khurasan, Qutayba ibn Muslim, launched numerous campaigns against Transoxiana (Central Asia), which had been a largely impenetrable region for earlier Muslim armies, between 705 and 715. In order to reduce forgery, Diwan al-Khatam (Bureau of Registry), a kind of state chancellery, was instituted by Mu'awiyah. [13], The Gerzeh culture ("Naqada II"), named after the site of el-Gerzeh, was the next stage in cultural development, and it was during this time that the foundation for ancient Egypt was laid. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. His name is known primarily from the famous Narmer Palette, whose scenes have been interpreted as the act of uniting Upper and Lower Egypt. These were supported by tribes in the Syrian desert and in the frontier with the Byzantines, as well as Christian Syrian tribes. [82], The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de-facto" administrative capital. [14] It was in this time that the city dwellers started using adobe to build their cities. An abridged list of rulers for the ancient Greek world concentrating on the Hellenistic age (32331 B.C. [citation needed], Later, she ordered the construction of two more obelisks to celebrate her 16th year as pharaoh; one of the obelisks broke during construction, and a third was therefore constructed to replace it. [citation needed] Battle The latter was to prove unable to resist and Thebes fell to the Hyksos for a very short period c. 1580 BC. Almost all scholars today view this as historical revisionism or prolepsis on Hatshepsut's part, since it was Thutmose II a son of Thutmose I by Mutnofret who was her father's heir. The Ptolemies were the rulers of the final dynasty of 3,000 years of ancient Egypt, and their progenitor was a Macedonian Greek by birth. While it had been claimed this was meant to be only a temporary intervention, British troops would remain in Egypt until 1956. She had twin obelisks erected at the entrance to the temple which at the time of building were the tallest in the world. [53] In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the Sikh guru Arjan, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community. [27] There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite,[28] resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture, especially during the reign of Shah Jahan. When 19th-century Egyptologists started to interpret the texts on the Deir el-Bahri temple walls (which were illustrated with two seemingly male kings) their translations made no sense. 110113. [22], Muhammad's death in 632 left open the succession of leadership of the Muslim community. At these temples, she performed religious rituals that had hitherto been reserved for kings, corroborating the evidence that Hatshepsut assumed traditionally male roles as pharaoh. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms. His dynasty lasted until 1872, and his Kingdom lasted until 1893, when Queen Liliuokalani, of the Kalkaua dynasty, was deposed by the pro By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. Mamluk (Arabic: , romanized: mamlk (singular), , mamlk (plural), translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave", also transliterated as Mameluke, mamluq, mamluke, mameluk, mameluke, mamaluke, or marmeluke) is a term most commonly referring to non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Southern Russian, Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) Amenemhat I built a new capital for Egypt, Itjtawy, thought to be located near the present-day Lisht, although Manetho claims the capital remained at Thebes. The Ptolemaic army, equipped in the Greek manner, was slightly larger. For the next ten years relations between the Sultan and the Pasha remained in the forefront of the questions which agitated the diplomatic world. Gold coins were called "dinars" while silver coins were called "dirhams". The Ptolemaic army, equipped in the Greek manner, was slightly larger. [3] Geological evidence and computer climate modeling studies suggest that natural climate changes around the 8th millennium BC began to desiccate the extensive pastoral lands of North Africa, eventually forming the Sahara by the 25th century BC. [91] A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. [160], To assist the Caliph in administration there were six boards at the centre: Diwan al-Kharaj (the Board of Revenue), Diwan al-Rasa'il (the Board of Correspondence), Diwan al-Khatam (the Board of Signet), Diwan al-Barid (the Board of Posts), Diwan al-Qudat (the Board of Justice) and Diwan al-Jund (the Military Board). The official in charge of those obelisks was the high steward Amenhotep. Perdiccas appointed Ptolemy, one of Alexander's closest companions, to rule Egypt in the name of the joint kings. However, while his army was being defeated, Muhammad saw the possibility of victory in France's unwillingness to participate (it having some warm feelings to the Khedive, and mainly participating with what was considered a token force to try to block a British expansion in North Africa.) [38] Mounting resentment against Uthman's rule in Iraq and Egypt and among the Ansar and Quraysh of Medina culminated in the siege and killing of the caliph in 656. According to the Muslim historians al-Baladhuri and al-Tabari, Sarjun was a mawla of the first Umayyad caliph, Mu'awiya I (r.661680),[a] serving as his "secretary and the person in charge of his business". He fought against Asiatic people and was the most successful of Egyptian pharaohs. In Year 8 of his reign, the Sea People invaded Egypt by land and sea. The employment of Christians was part of a broader policy of religious accommodation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in Syria. [7], The Badari culture, named for the Badari site near Deir Tasa, followed the Tasian; however, similarities cause many to avoid differentiating between them at all. [citation needed] Battle [161] Aurangzeb (16581707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings. Traces of these early people appear in the form of artefacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. [22][23] These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator,[24] were paid in the well-regulated silver currency,[21] and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets. The first notable pharaoh of the Old Kingdom was Djoser of the Third Dynasty, who ordered the construction of the first pyramid, the Pyramid of Djoser, in Memphis' necropolis of Saqqara. Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world. The Tasian culture is notable for producing the earliest blacktop-ware, a type of red and brown pottery painted black on its top and interior. War elephants were essentially the tanks of the era, a strategy learned from India and used by all sides. In Josephus' work, her reign is described as lasting 21 years and nine months,[15] while Africanus stated it was 22 years. [78] The eldest surviving Sufyanid, al-Walid ibn Utba, the son of Mu'awiya I's full brother, died shortly after Mu'awiya II's death, while another paternal uncle of the deceased caliph, Uthman ibn Anbasa ibn Abi Sufyan, who had support from the Kalb of the Jordan district, recognized the caliphate of his maternal uncle Ibn al-Zubayr. It is reported that Hatshepsut had these trees planted in the courts of her mortuary temple complex. [194] The Abbasids justified their rule by saying that their ancestor Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib was a cousin of Muhammad. [138] This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century;[138] the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century. The Tasian culture was the next to appear; it existed in Upper Egypt starting about 4500 BC. [132] During the Umayyad period, the majority of people living within the caliphate were not Muslim, but Christian, Jewish, Zoroastrian, or members of other small groups. [26] Burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean, and its increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products, created still greater wealth in the Mughal courts.
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